The three main religions in China are Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism. Animistic religions are followed by minority nationalities and in rural areas. These can involve Buddhism, Taoism, worship of nature, spirits, ancestors, animals or parts of the body.
Confucianism
Confucius (Kong fu zi) lived from 551-479 BC, at the same time as Buddha (c560-481 BC). He was born in a feudal state in Shangdong province. His father was a warrior. Confucius showed great skill as a student. At the age of 22 he opened a school. Many people came in search of his learning and wisdom. He was made minister of justice for the state, and during his administration brought moral order and prosperity.
Teaching of Confucius
Concern for others (the fundamental moral virtue)
Honouring one’s parents
Right behaviour
Treating others as you would wish to be treated
Ruling with moral standing and benevolence
The Chinese feudal society of Confucius’s time was unstable. Moral order had declined. Thieving and robbery had increased in the countryside and murder in the cities. There was a gulf between the rich and poor, and many of the poor were hungry though there was enough food. Many rulers and governors were corrupt and hated by their subjects.
Later Confucian teachers
Be amiable to everything in the universe, to help maintain universal harmony
Live a simple life uncluttered by extravagant ambition or dreams
Be modest rather than assertive and dominant
Such ideas have influenced the development of certain Chinese characteristics: A person is afraid to be famous; a pig is afraid to be fat and strong. (Chinese saying). That is, a healthy pig will be killed and eaten; a successful person will be a target. Many Chinese people keep their work and thoughts to themselves. Parents sometimes tell their children that if they are good at something, they should be modest even to the point of hiding it.
Taoism also rejects competition, rank, luxury, vulgarity and boasting. Laozi said that the highest level was the least secure. Everyone wants to be at the top of the tree, but were we to achieve that, the tree would break. Instead, we should be like water, always seeking the lowest level.
Spirits, gods, immortals
In Chinese tradition, there are many deities and spirits. For the Taoist these spirits are all manifestations of the one unknowable Tao. A Taoist pantheon developed in which gods formed a hierarchy. Heavenly gods mirrored earthly officials, while demons mirrored social outcasts and criminals. People sought happiness, prosperity and good health by worshipping and appeasing the spirits.
Taoism today
Under Communism, Taoism was denounced as fatalistic, superstitious and passive. It was not progressive nor moral enough to be of use. However, the many influences of Taoism are still evident (medicine, qi gong etc). Most people in China will encounter these things in their daily lives.
Ancestor veneration
Ancient belief included the veneration of ancestors. Souls reached happiness according to the conduct of their living descendants. Therefore one’s duty was to live a good and virtuous life. Ancestor worship is still practised. For many people it is simply superstition — something that is done ‘just in case’. For others it is more important. In many houses a small ‘shrine’ can be found, usually photos of grandparents to which food and cigarettes are offered. The yearly qing ming festival celebrates ancestors with grave cleaning and firecrackers. Christians are told not to venerate ancestors but this can be a source of family tension, even a barrier to belief.
Pray for
China: freedom of religion and end of persecution of all religious groups
Intellectuals/young people questioning the status quo
Family pressures for Christians
Good Christian teaching, to avoid the mixing of traditional Chinese beliefs with Christian beliefs
Taiwan: predominantly Taoist.
Chinese Religions (CR) in East Asia
Taiwan* - pop 23m, 70% CR
Hong Kong - pop 6m, 66% CR
Singapore - pop 3m, 53% CR
Macau * - pop 0.4m, 44% CR
China - pop 1200m, 27% CR
Malaysia - pop 20m, 18% CR
Thailand - pop 61m, 2% CR
* Figures in these countries represent Chinese religions mixed with Buddhism.
Mencius (4th century BC)
Mencius (Meng zi) added a mystical and intuitive approach to the ethics and morals: the Way of Heaven. He placed Confucius’s concern for humanity in relation to divine cosmic power.
In Confucian writings the interdependence of human nature and divine power is discussed in terms of balance. The ideal is for a person to achieve harmony within themselves, balancing their emotions, and with the cosmic powers of life and creativity.
Xun zi (3rd century BC)
Confucius focused on concern for humanity and Mencius on humanity and the divine. Xun zi focused on a doctrine of ritual action. He created a pattern of ritual to support the spiritual and ethical ideals on a daily basis.
Heaven and the divine
Early Chinese writings refer to a supreme or highest god, with many names, eg Heaven, Heavenly Emperor. Confucius shared this belief, saying: ‘He who offends against Heaven has no one to whom he can pray.’ Heaven presided with moral law. Later followers regarded heaven as the divine moral power of the cosmos, expressed perfectly in harmony with humanity.
Confucianism today
Confucianism was repressed during the cultural revolution (1966-76). However, it has become more fashionable in the late 20th century. In fact, the Asian economic boom has been partly attributed to Confucian ethics such as valuing community above the individual. Many ‘Chinese’ values may have roots in Confucianism (eg family loyalty). Similarly, many values which are attributed to Confucianism may be cultural traits with various influences (eg authoritarian government). Confucianism is now seem as a positive and inherently Chinese alternative to Western influences which threaten the old ways.
Taoism
Confucianism looks for perfect humanity within the world. Taoism looks for universal unity.
The first Taoist writings unite ancient pantheistic beliefs to create a formally recognised tradition. They were written in the 5th century BC by Laozi. Like Confucius, Laozi lived in a time of social disturbance. He turned to nature for peace, unity and tradition.
Laozi and later, Zhuangzi (3rd century BC) developed the concept of the Dao (anglicised as Tao). Meaning ‘the way’, or ‘the correct road’, it is seen as the force behind the natural world. It is the model for humanity, the sum total of all things which are and which change.
The Tao is the way of the universe. The world moves in endless cycles of change and variation, perpetually becoming and then fading away, expanding then contracting. Within these universal cycles are differences and opposites.
The yin-yang symbol expresses the dualistic but balanced principles of the Tao. The yin is the dark side, the breath which formed the earth. The yang is the light side, the breath which formed the heavens. The interaction of the two is visible throughout the universe: masculine and feminine, hot and cold, rich and poor, light and dark, good and evil. This principle is explained by Laozi as follows: ‘The Tao [non-being] produced the One [being], the One produced the two.’
The Tao is essentially unknowable. However, it is evident in the natural world and Taoists have modelled their lives on the patterns of the universe. They aim to live in accord with the Tao. This means achieving harmony within oneself and within the universe. Natural order and balance can be mirrored in society.
Many things now recognised as inherently Chinese were inspired and consolidated by Taoism. These include a love of nature, herbal medicine, Chinese cooking, martial arts and gymnastics. Some are based on the idea of qi (‘chi’), the body’s intrinsic energy. Tai qi and qi gong are believed to help the flow of this energy through the body, while traditional medicine works on the principle that illness is caused by blocked qi.
Flow also relates to the concept of wu wei. The art of wu wei is to achieve action through ‘not doing’. Minimal action will produce the required results because this avoids force, thus allowing one to work with the natural flow. Working forcefully against it might result in blockage, and therefore, no action.